勉強メモ：English Grammar in Use

December 24, 2022

久々に再読。自分用の勉強メモ。

Unit 1: Present continuous (I am doing)

• You can use the present continuous with today / this week / this year etc.(periods around now):
  • You’re working hard today. (not You work hard today)
  • The company I work for isn’t doing so well this hear.

Unit 6: Past continuous (I was doing)

• You can say that something happened (past simple) in the middle of something else (past continuous):
  • Matt phoned while we were having dinner.
  • It was raining when I got up.
  • I saw you in the park yesterday. You were sitting on the grass and reading a book.
  • I hurt my back while I was working in the garden.
• But we use the past simple to say that one thing happened after another:
  • I was walking along the road when I saw Dan. So I stopped, and we talked for a while.
• Compare:
  • When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. (= we had already started before she arrived)
  • When Karen arrived, we had dinner. (= Karen arrived, and then we had dinner)

Unit 7: Present perfect 1 (I have done)

• When we use the present perfect, there is a connection with now. The action in the past has a result now.
  • Tom has lost his key. (= he doesn’t have it now)
  • He told me his name, but I’ve forgotten it. (= I can’t remember it now)
  • Sally is still here. She hasn’t gone out. (= she is here now)
  • I can’t find my bag. Have you seen it? (= do you know where it is now?)
• Compare gone (to) and been (to):
  • James is on holiday. He has gone to Italy. (= he is there now or on his way there)
  • Amy is back home now. She has been to Italy. (= she has now come back)
• You can use the present perfect with just, already and yet.
  • Just = a short time ago:
    • ‘Are you hungry?’ ‘No, I’ve just had lunch.’
  • Already = sooner than expected:
    • ‘Don’t forget to pay the bill.’ ‘I’ve already paid it.’
  • Yet = until now. We use yet to show that we are expecting something to happen.
    • I’ve written the email, but I haven’t sent it yet.
• You can also use the past simple. So you can say:
  • Ben isn’t here. He’s gone out. or He went out.
  • ‘Are you hungry?’ ‘No, I’ve just had lunch.’ or ‘No, I just had lunch.’

Unit 8: Present perfect 2 (I have done)

• In the following examples too, the speakers are talking about a period that continues until now (recently, in the last few days, so far, since I arrived, for a long time etc.):
  • Have you heard anything from Ben recently?
  • I’ve met a lot of people in the last few days.
  • Everything is going well. There haven’t been any problems so far.
  • The weather is bad here. It’s (It has) rained every day since I arrived. (= from when I arrived until now)
  • It’s good to see you again. We haven’t seen each other for a long time.
• In the same way we use the present perfect with today, this evening, this year etc. when these periods are not finished at the time of speaking:
  • I’ve drunk four cups of coffee today.
  • Have you had a holiday this year?
  • I haven’t seen Tom this morning. Have you?
• We say ‘It’s the (first) time something has happened’. For example:
  • Don is having a driving lesson. It’s his first lesson. We can say:
    • It’s the first time he has driven a car. (not drives)
    • He hasn’t driven a car before.
    • He has never driven a car before.
  • In the same way we say:
    • Sarah has lost her passport again. This is the second time this has happened. (not happens)
    • Andy is phoning his girlfriend again. It’s the third time he’s phoned her this evening.

Unit 10: Present perfect continuous and simple (I have been doing and I have done)

• Compare these two situations:
  • There is paint on Kate’s clothes. She has been painting her bedroom. ‘I’ve been painting my bedroom.’
    • We are thinking of the activity. It does not matter whether it has been finished or not. In this example, the activity (painting the bedroom) has not been finished.
  • The bedroom was green. Now it is yellow. She has painted her bedroom. ‘I’ve painted my bedroom.’
    • Here, the important thing is that something has been finished. ‘She has painted’ is a completed action. We are thinking about the result of the activity (the painted bedroom), not the activity itself.
• We use the continuous to say how long (for something that is still happening):
  • How long have you been reading that book?
  • Amy is writing emails. She’s been writing emails all morning.
  • They’ve been playing tennis since 2 o’clock.
• We use the simple to say how much, how many, or how many times (for completed actions):
  • How many pages of that book have you read?
  • Amy has sent lots of emails this morning.
  • They’ve played tennis three times this week.

Unit 11: how long have you (been) …?

• Dan and Kate are married. They got married exactly 20 years ago, so today is their 20th wedding anniversary.
  • They have been married for 20 years.
  • We say: They are married. (present)
  • but (present perfect)
    • How long have they been married? (not How long are they married?)
    • They have been married for 20 years. (not They are married for 20 years)

Unit 12: for and since when … ? and how long … ?

• We often leave out for (but not usually in negative sentences):
  • They’ve seen married for ten years. or They’ve been married ten years.
• We do not use for + all … (all day / all my life etc.):
  • I’ve lived here all my life. (not for all my life)

Unit 13: Present perfect and past 1 (I have done and I did)

• Study this example situation:
  • Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it.
  • He has lost his key. (present perfect)
  • This means that he doesn’t have his key now.
• Ten minutes later:
  • Now Tom has found his key. He has it now.
  • Has he lost his key? No, he has found it.
  • Did he lose his key? Yes, he did.
  • He lost his key (past simple)
  • but now he has found it. (present perfect)
• The present perfect (something has happened) is a present tense. It tells us about the situation now.
  • ‘Tom has lost his key’ = he doesn’t have his key now.
• The past simple (something happened) tells us only about the past. If somebody says '
  • ‘Tom lost his key’ = we don’t know whether he has the key now or not. we know only that he lost it at some time in the past.

Unit 18: used to (do)

• I used to do something = I did it often in the past, but now any more.
  • I used to play tennis a lot, but I don’t play very much now.
  • David used to spend a lot of money on clothes. These days he can’t afford it.
  • ‘Do you go to the cinema much?’ ‘Not now, but I used to.’
• We also used to … for things that were true, but are not true any more.
  • This building is now a furniture shop. It used to be a cinema.
  • I used to think Mark was unfriendly, but now I realise he’s a very nice person.
  • I’ve started drinking coffee recently. I never used to like it before.
  • Lisa used to have very long hair when she was a child.
• ‘I used to do something’ is past. There is no present. You cannot say ‘I use to do’.
• The normal question form is did (you) use to …?
  • Did you use to eat a lot of sweets when you were a child? (= did you do this often?)
• The negative form is didn’t use to … (used not to … is also possible)
  • I didn’t use to like him. (or I used not to like him.)
• Do not confuse I used to do and I am used to doing. The structure and meanings are different:
  • I used to live alone. (= I lived alone in the past, but I no longer live alone.)
  • I am used to living alone. (= I live alone, and it’s not a problem for me because I’ve lived alone for some time.)

Unit 19: Present tenses (I am doing / I do) for the future

• I’m doing something (tomorrow etc.) = I have already decided and arranged to do it:
  • What are you doing on Saturday evening? (not What do you do)
  • I’m going to the cinema. (not I go)
• We do not normally use will to talk about what we have arranged to do:
  • What are you doing tonight? (not What will you do)
  • Alex is getting married next month. (not will get)
• We also use the present continuous for an action just before you start to do it. This happens especially with verbs of movement (go / come / leave etc.):
  • I’m tired. I’m going to bed now. Goodnight. (not I go to bed now)
  • ‘Tina, are you ready yet?’ ‘Yes, I’m coming.’ (not I come)
• We use the present simple when we talk about timetables and programmes (for example, transport or cinema times):
  • I have to go. My train leaves at 11.30.
  • What time does the film start tonight?
  • The meeting is at nine o’clock tomorrow.
• You can use the present simple to talk about people if their plans are fixed like a timetable:
  • I start my new job on Monday.
  • What time do you finish work tomorrow?
• But the continuous is more usual for other personal arrangements:
  • What time are you meeting Kate tomorrow? (not do you meet)

Unit 20: I’m going to (do)

• I am doing = It is already fixed or arranged. For example, you have arranged to go somewhere or meet somebody:
  • I’m leaving next week. I’ve booked my flight.
  • What time are you meeting Emily this evening?
• I am going to do something = I’ve decided to do it. Maybe I’ve arranged to do it, maybe not.
  • I don’t want to stay here. Tomorrow I’m going to look for somewhere else to stay.
• I was going to do something = I intended to do it, but didn’t do it:
  • We were going to travel by train, but then we decided to drive instead.
  • I was just going to cross the road when somebody shouted ‘Stop!’

Unit 21: will and shall 1

• We use I’ll … (I will) when we’ve just decided to do something. When we say ‘I’ll do something’, we announce our decision:
  • Oh, I left the door open. I’ll go and shut it.
  • ‘What would you like to drink?’ ‘I’ll have orange juice, please.’
• We do not use will to talk about what has been decided or arranged before:
  • I’m going on holiday next Saturday. (not I’ll go)
• Compare:
  • I’m meeting Kate tomorrow morning. (decided before)
  • A: I’ll meet you at half past ten, OK? B: Fine. See you then. (decided now)

Unit 22: will and shall 2

• We do not use will to say what something has already arranged or decided to do:
  • Lisa is working next week (not Lisa will work)
  • Are you going to watch TV this evening? (not will you watch)
• We use will to say what we know or believe about the future (not what someone has already decided).
• Compare:
  • I think James is going to the party on Friday. (= I think he has already decided to go)
  • I think James will go to the party on Friday. (= I think he will decided to go)

Unit 23: I will and I’m going to

• Compare will and (be) going to:
  • SARAH: ‘Let’s have party.’ HELEN: ‘That’s a great idea. We’ll invite lots of people.’
    • We use will (We’ll invite …) to announce a new decision. The party is a new idea.
  • HELEN: ‘Sarah and I have decided to have a party. We’re going to invite lots of people.’
    • We use (be) going to when we have already decided to do something. Helen had already decided to invite lots of people before she spoke to him.
• We use both will and going to for future happenings and situations.
• When we say something is going to happen, we believe this because of the situation now. What is happening now shows that something is going to happen in the future. For example:
  • Look at those black clouds. It’s going to rain. (not it will rain)

Unit 24: will be doing and will have done

• I will be doing something (future continuous) = I will be in the middle of doing it:
  • This time next week I’ll be on holiday. I’ll be lying on the beach or swimming in the sea.
• Compare:
  • At 10 o’clock yesterday, Tina was in her office. She was working. (past continuous)
  • At 10 o’clock now. She is in her office. She is working. (present continuous)
  • At 10 o’clock tomorrow, she will be in her office. She will be working. (future continuous)
• I will have done something (future perfect) = it will be complete before a time in the future. For Example:
  • Sally always leaves for work at 8.30 in the morning. She won’t be at home at 9 o’clock she’ll have gone to work.
• Compare:
  • Ted and Amy have been married for 24 years. (present perfect)
  • Next year they will have been married for 25 years. (future perfect)
  • When their son was born, they had been married for three years. (past perfect)

Unit 25: when I do and when I’ve done - if and when

• We say ‘When I do something’ (not will do), ‘When something happens’ (not will happen)
• We use the present perfect to show that one thing is complete before the other. The two things do not happen together:
  • When I’ve phoned Kate, we can go out. (= first I’ll phone Kate and after that we can go out)
• Do not use the present perfect if the two things happen together:
  • When I phone Kate, I’ll ask her about the party. (not when I’ve phoned)

Unit 26: can, could and (be) able to

• We use can to say that something is possible or allowed, or that somebody has the ability to do something. We use can + infinitive (can do / can see etc.)
• But to say that somebody succeeded in doing something in a specific situation, we normally use was/were able to or managed to:
  • The fire spread quickly, but everybody was able to escape. (not could escape)
  • I didn’t know where Max was, but I managed to find him in the end. (not could find)

Unit 31: have to and must

• Mustn’t and don’t have to are completely different:
  • You mustn’t do something = don’t do it:
    • You must keep this a secret. You mustn’t tell anyone. (= don’t tell anyone)
  • You don’t have to do something = you don’t need to do it (but you can if you want):
    • You don’t have to come with me. I can go alone.

Unit 34: should 2

• You can use should after: insist, demand, recommend, suggest, propose (also It’s important/vital/necessary/essential that … should …)
  • I insisted that he should apologise.
  • Doctors recommend that everyone should eat plenty of fruit.
  • What do you suggest we should do?
  • Many people are demanding that something should be done about the problem.
  • It’s essential that everyone should be here on time.
• You can also leave out should in the sentences. So you can say:
  • It’s essential that every one be here on time. (= … that everyone should be here …)
  • I insisted that he apologise. (= … that he should apologise)
• This form (be/do/apologise etc.) is called the subjunctive. It is the same as the infinitive (without to). You can also use normal present and past forms:
  • It’s essential that everyone is here on time.
  • I insisted that he apoligised.

Unit 35: I’d better … it’s time …

• I’d better do something = it is advisable to do it. If I don’t do it, there will be a problem or a danger:
  • I have to meet Amy in ten minutes. I’d better go now or I’ll be late.
• The negative is I’d better not (= I had better not):
  • You don’t look very well. You’d better not go out tonight.
• Remember that:
  • Had is normally past, but we use had better for the present or future, not past.
    • I’d better go now / tomorrow.
  • We say ‘I’d better do’ (not to do).
    • It might rain. We’d better take an umbrella. (not We’d better to take)
• Had better is similar to should but not exactly the same. We use had better only for a specific situation, not for things in general. You can use should in all types of situations to give an opinion or give advice:
  • It’s late. You’d better go. or You should go. (a specific situation)
  • You’re always at home. You should go out more often. (inn general - not ‘had better go’)
• Also, with had better, there is always a danger or a problem if you don’t follow the advice. Should means only ‘it is a good thing to do’. Compare:
  • It’s a great film. You should go and see it. (but no problem if you don’t)
  • The film starts at 8.30. You’d better go now or you’ll miss the beginning.

Unit 36: would

• We use would (’d) / wouldn’t when we imagine a situation or action (= we think of something that is not real):
  • It would be nice to buy a new car, but we can’t afford it.
• We use would have (done) when we imagine something that didn’t happen in the past:
  • They helped us a lot. I don’t know what we’d have done without their help.
• Compare will (’ll) and would (’d)
  • I’ll call Lisa. I have her number.
  • I’d call Lisa, but I don’t have her number. (so I can’t call her)

Unit 45: it is said that … / he is said to … / he is supposed to …

• These structures are often used in news reports. For example, in a report about an accident:
  • It is reported that two people were injured in the explosion.
  • or
  • Two people are reported to have been injured in the explosion.
• Example:
  • Cathy loves running.
    • It is said that she runs 10 miles a day.
    • or
    • She is said to run 10 miles a day.
  • The police are looking for a missing boy.
    • It is believed that the boy is wearing a white sweater and blue jeans.
    • or
    • The boy is believed to be wearing a white sweater and blue jeans.

Unit 46: have something done

• If you have something done, you arranged for somebody to do it for you.
• Compare:
  • Lisa repaired the roof. (= she repaired it herself) / Lisa had the roof repaired. (= she arranged for somebody else to repair it)
  • A: Did you make those curtains yourself? B: Yes, I like making things.
  • A: Did you have those curtains made? B: No, I made them myself.

Unit 47: Reported speech 1 (he said that …)

• You saw Paul yesterday and you want to tell somebody what he said. There are two ways of doing this:
  • You can repeat Paul’s words (direct speech):
    • Paul said, ‘I’m feeling ill.’
  • Or you can use reported speech:
    • Paul said that he was feeling ill.
• When we use reported speech, the main verb of the sentence is usually past (Paul said that … / I told her that … etc.). The rest of the sentence is usually past too:
  • Paul said that he was feeling ill.
  • I told Lisa that I didn’t have any money.
• The past simple (did/saw/knew etc.) can stay the same in reported speech, or you can change it to the past perfect (had done / had seen / had known etc.):
  • direct
    • Paul said: ‘I woke up feeling ill, so I didn’t go to work.’
  • reported
    • Paul said (that) he woke up feeling ill, so he didn’t go to work.
    • or
    • Paul said (that) he had woken up feeling ill, so he hadn’t gone to work.

その他メモ #

未来の予定を表す表現の使い分け。

• I will do = I’ve just decided to do something.
• I am going to do = I’ve decided to do it before. Maybe I’ve arranged to do it, maybe not.
• I am doing = I have already decided and arranged to do it.
• I do = Things like timetables or programmes.